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    地下水重金属污染修复技术研究进展


    地下水为人类提供着宝贵的水源,也是自然界水循环与水资源的重要组成部分。目前,我国有400余个城市以地下水为供水水源,有些城市地下水甚至成为唯一的供水水源。然而城市化进程的加快及工业的迅猛发展,矿产资源的开采、冶炼等环节,地下水重金属污染问题日益突显。重金属污染分布和特点问题,国内外有学者已进行相关研究。重金属污染与矿产资源的开采、冶炼密切相关,如在湖南、陕西、青海等矿石开采业较为发达的省份,部分地区地下水重金属超标严重。

    地下水污染尤其是重金属污染的问题已经引起国内学者的关注,但目前重金属污染评价及治理的研究主要集中在土壤、地表水与沉积物,关于地下水重金属污染的较少。地下水关乎人民健康,重金属污染事件一旦出现,其造成的危害无法估量,因此研究出针对地下水重金属污染治理的技术迫在眉睫。

    本文将地下水重金属污染的修复技术分为异位修复技术和原位修复技术2大类。目前研究及应用中,地下水重金属污染的修复技术主要以原位修复为主,因此重点介绍了抽出-处理技术及几种原位修复技术,并结合实际工程应用,对各技术的优缺点进行比较。值得关注的是原位生物修复技术中,Geobacter和Shewanella等微生物在特定条件下课产生纳米线,可远距离传输电子,大大提高了降解效率。

    1、污染现状

    乔晓辉等对华北平原地下水重金属污染分布特征,研究区地下水PH为5.4-9.4,平均为7.721,Fe含量超标严重,平均高于GB5749-2006标准300μg/L;Se、Cr含量部分地区出现超标,超标率分布为3.54%和1.77%。张兆吉等的研究也发现,华北平原地区有7.6%的地下水遭受重金属污染,其中砷、铅等重金属呈点状分布;其中又以铅污染最为严重,砷含量普遍较高,浅层、深层地下水砷超标率分别达12.97%、5.12%。

    张妍等研究黄河下游引黄灌区地下水重金属污染水平以及健康风险评价,调查鲁、豫两省11种重金属元素(Ba、Cd、Cr、Cu、Fe、Mn、Mo、Pb、Se和Zn)含量,其中Fe、Mn、Zn和Se出现超标现象,发现饮水和皮肤暴露途径中,Cr污染对个人年风险均影响最大,但低于最大可接受风险。

    文冬光等对我国东部主要平原地区开展地下水质量与污染评价,发现重金属检出普遍,呈点污染特征,超标率0.2%-9.3%,其中砷、镉、铅超标率分别为9.3%、3.5%和1.5%。

    地下水中重金属来源有多种途径,一是含有重金属的生活污水和未经处理的工矿废水,排放入河流,经过灌溉进入地下水而造成地下水环境污染,如金属电镀、采矿、化肥生产、电子电池生产,造纸以及农药的生产等;二是金属矿山开采与冶炼活动,大量岩石裸露地表,进入到矿区及周边地区的地表水体及地下水体含有大量重金属元素。

    按照污染场地划分,地下水污染场地分为工业、市政、农业及特殊污染场地。其中重金属污染场地主要是含重金属的工业污废水排放污染场地、工业固体废弃物填埋污染堆放场地、矿产开采污染场地。目前修复技术主要针对的是工业类的污染场地修复。

    重金属是一类典型的环境污染物,其相对原子质量在63.5-200.6,密度大于5.0,包括汞、镉、铅、铬和类金属砷等生物毒性显著的重元素,及锌、铜、钴、镍、锡等具有一定毒性的一般重金属。水中重金属以多种形式存在,主要有离子交换态、金属盐结合态、有机物结合态和残渣态等,其中以结合态、交换态的毒性最大,残存态的活性毒性最小,如甲基汞要比汞的其他形态毒性要强。

    重金属不易被生物降解,可在身为体内富集,如重金属Cd元素是致癌物质,进入人体后能长时间滞留,在生物体内的半衰期长达20-40a。汞可与生物体内蛋白质中的巯基高度亲和,生成硫醇盐,进而抑制蛋白质的合成。Cd会导致骨矿密度降低,增加骨折发生机率,人体摄入过量会引起各器官一系列病变。

    重金属元素本身的富集性及不可降解性,地下水的不断迁移和循环,以及含水介质的差异性和复杂性,多种因素造成地下水重金属污染具备如下特点:污染早期不易被觉察,污染范围难以圈定。

    2、修复技术

    国内外已对地下水重金属污染进行调研,并对典型重金属去除方法取得一定成果。如抽出-地表处理技术、植物修复技术等。目前治疗重金属地下水污染的途径主要有2种:1种是改变金属离子存在形态,使其变成单质或者化合物沉淀,增强其稳定性,降低其在环境中的迁移性;另1种是改变金属离子价态,大大降低其毒性。修复技术可分为异位修复技术和原位修复技术2大类。

    2.1异位修复技术

    地下水异位修复技术是将污染水体通过收集系统或者抽提系统转移到地面上,进行处理后使水体达到排放要求的技术。

    针对重金属污染的修复,异位修复技术主要是抽出-地表处理技术(pump-and-treatmethod),即在污染场地布置一定数量的抽水井,用水泵将受污染的地下水抽提至地上的处理设备进行处理,出水根据当地实际的地质情况进行排放,通常适用于处理高强度、突发性或污染晕埋藏深的场地。该技术处理周期短、效果好,但需要续的能量供给及定期的监测和维护,因此运行成本较高。

    异位修复技术中,抽出-地表处理技术应用最为广泛,根据美国环保局的统计,在1982-2002年间,相对其他修复技术,其在工程应用上的使用比例高达68%。但有时可能会出现拖尾和反弹现象。

    2.2原位修复技术

    由于异位修复技术投资及运行成本较高,因此重金属污染的原位修复技术受到国内外学者的广泛关注。原位修复技术指不破坏土体和地下水自然环境,对污染的地下水进行原地修复,该技术处理费用低、地表处理设施少、环境扰动性小,包括可渗透反应墙技术、原位电动修复技术、原位化学修复技术和原位生物修复技术。

    2.2.1可渗透反应墙技术

    1982年,美国环保局提出了可渗透反应墙技术(PermeableReactiveBarrier,PRB)。根据美国环保局(USEPA)的定义,“通过在地下安装活性材料墙体,将污染物羽状体加以拦截,在反应介质中经吸附、沉淀、降解等反应将污染物转化为环境能够接受的另一种形式,使得污染物最终含量达到国家规定的允许排放值”。

    PRB技术中,活性材料决定反应时间和速度,并影响治理的效果和反应格栅所使用的时间。用于反应的充填介质包括零价铁、活性炭、磷灰石、泥炭、微生物、锯屑或其它物质。当污染羽较宽或者较深,会引起的墙体的尺寸过大,对此可先用低渗透性的隔断墙先引导地下水流,进而可采用更小的反应器替代反应墙,即“漏斗-通道系统(funnel-and-gatesystem)”。

    PRB技术中反应介质起主要作用,因此必须具有以下特征:吸附降解能力较强,能长时间保持活性;在水力和矿化作用下保持稳定;处理污染物过程中没有有害物质产生;抗腐蚀性强。

    PRB法可原位降解或者截留污染组分,不需抽出处理过程。单身在长期处理过程中,系统容易造成堵塞,因此需要对反应介质进行更新,从而保证其长期有效的作用。而且,PRB技术通常采用的是通过土体开挖和反应材料回填的办法进行施工,开挖深度一般在8m以内,超过8m施工费用较高,需采用其他如高压喷射等方法。德国与美国对这方面有较多的研究。此外,PRB的设计须根据污染物特征分析,地下土壤特性及地下水运行特性,因此在设计前,需要进行大量的前期调查及建立工作模型。

    2.2.2原位电动修复技术

    原位电动修复技术(Electromotionrepairingtechnique)是通过施加直流电压形成电场梯度,使污染物质在电场作用下迁移至电极两端,具体是各种形态的重金属污染物先转化为可溶态,然后在电场作用下通过离子迁移和电渗定向迁移出地下水。含水介质的土壤层更利于污染离子的迁移,因此该技术目前大多应用于含水介质的土壤层污染的原位修复上。

    与其他修复技术相比,电动力学修复技术对地下水重金属污染处理发生在2个电极之间,污染修复目标性很强;金属离子移向电极两端而去除,不会引入新的污染物质。但需控制稳定合适的酸性环境,另外,活化极化、电阻极化和浓差极化的存在,可能会使电流降低。

    电化学技术还可以强化地下水原位生物修复,利用电动力学效应加速污染环境中微生物运动,提高污染物的生物降解速率。

    2.2.3原位化学修复技术

    原位化学修复技术(In-situchemicalremediationtechnology)主要是利用氧化还原试剂与土壤及地下水中污染物反生反应从而降低污染物含量的一种原位修复技术。可分为原位化学氧化技术(InSituChemicalOxidation,ISCO)和原位化学还原技术(InSituChemicalReduction,ISCR)。

    ISCO技术是采用一定方式将化学氧化剂投放地下,使重金属氧化为低毒、低移动性产物的修复技术。目前,二氧化氯、高锰酸钾、臭氧和Fenton试剂是4种最为常见的氧化剂。如在修复As3+污染地下水时,加入氧化剂可使As3+转化为毒性较低的As5+。另外,由于As3+的溶解度大于As5+,As3+转化为As5+可显著降低As在地下水中的迁移性。ISCO技术也可作为生物修复和自然生物降解的预处理。

    ICSR技术是利用一些化学修复药剂的强还原性,通过还原、吸附、沉淀或隔离等作用,将地下水中重金属类物质还原为低价的稳态或单质形式,以达到降低其毒性和稳定性的目的。常用于地下水中的铬(VI)、砷(V)等重金属修复。

    原位化学修复技术具有去除重金属效率高,投入成本相对较低,修复周期较短等优势。然而,如果地下水中伴有多种重金属污染,采用该法去除一种重金属污染时,可能会造成另外一种重金属污染。另外,氧化还原剂本身的健康与安全问题以及可能引起重金属迁移等问题也限制了原位化学修复技术的应用。

    2.2.4原位生物修复技术

    原位生物修复技术(In-situBioremediation)是指基本上不破坏原始地下水自然环境,利用地下水中原有的或者人工培养的具有特定功能的微生物群,原位降解地下水中污染物的技术。如污染场地土壤和地下水中往往分布着产碱菌属(Alcaligenes)、芽孢杆菌属等多种可以使铬酸盐和重铬酸盐还原的微生物,可将高毒性的Cr6+转化为低毒性的Cr3+。

    利用趋磁细菌去除重金属污染也取得良好的效果,趋磁细菌能够吸收外界环境中的铁元素,并在体内形成具有磁性的铁化合物,在外界磁场的作用下,该菌能沿着磁力线的方向作定向移动,将趋磁细菌加入废水中,吸附完成后在磁场分离器中将其分离。研究结果表明该方法可将含Fe2+废水、Cr3+废水以及含Ni2+废水中的重金属离子去除95%以上。

    对于含重金属的酸性矿井废水,利用自然界硫循环原理进行厌氧生物处理和原位修复技术,具备无二次污染,处理效率高等优势,其中利用硫酸盐还原菌进行修复备受关注。硫酸盐还原菌(SRB)能把硫酸盐、亚硫酸盐等硫氧化物以及元素硫还原成硫化氢。该菌降解重金属主要有4条途径:(1)厌氧条件下,SRB将SO42-异化还原为H2S,重金属离子与H2S结合生成金属硫化物沉淀;(2)SO42-转化为S2-的同时PH升高,进而利于重金属离子生成氢氧化物沉淀;(3)SRB产生的胞外聚合物吸附废水中的重金属离子;(4)SRB分解有机物生成CO2,部分重金属和CO32-反应生成不溶性的碳酸盐沉淀。

    除SRB还原菌外,Charles等对比SRB和硒酸盐还原菌(Selenite-reducingbacteria,SeRB)去除硒酸盐,以醋酸作为电子供体,发现降解途径为SRB将硒酸盐还原为硫化硒沉淀,SeRB将硒酸盐还原为硒单质,2者均能有效的将硒酸盐污染物去除。

    自2005年,Reguera等发现胞外呼吸菌GeobactersulfurreducensDL1的菌毛具有导电性,并将这种生长在细胞周边的聚合蛋白微丝命名为“微生物纳米导线”(microbialnanowires),由此引发了关于微生物纳米导线的研究热潮。之后研究发现ShewanellaoneidensisMR-1、SynechocystisPCC6803、Pelotomaculumthermopropionicum类似的长十几微米的生物导线。在污染修复领域,Geobacter和Shewanella金属还原菌利用纳米导线电子传递机制,可远距离传输电子,使菌体摆脱了需要直接接触电子受体才能进行电子传递空间限制,提高了电子传递效率。如Geobacter可通过菌毛将电子从细胞内传递到胞外,将U(VI)还原成不溶性的U(VI),并将U(VI)吸附在菌毛周围,形成不溶性的纳米粒。

    除异位和原位修复技术外,还有监测天然衰减技术(MonitoringNaturalAttenuationTechnology,MNA)MNA技术通过修复场地的自然衰减作用,使污染物的含量和总量得以减少,从而使特定地点的污染在一定时间内完成污染修复。该技术具备生物修复技术的优点,但要求修复场地本身有较高的自然衰减能力。因此MNA技术适用于污染程度较轻、自然衰减能力较强的地区。

    3、结语与展望

    地下水重金属污染与人民群众健康密切相关,重金属具有不可生物降解、易于在生物体内富集以及生物毒性等特点,加上地下水地质条件的复杂性,造成地下水重金属污染修复更具危害性和隐蔽性。随着对修复技术研究的不断加深,目前各种修复技术已经成功运用于地下水污染治理。综合国内外研究进展,结合我国国情,提出地下水重金属污染防治以下思路:

    (1)土壤和地下水密切相关,在土壤-地下水重金属污染迁移转化规律方面,根据迁移模型,可先修复土壤重金属,进而防止污染地下水体或减轻后续处理强度。

    (2)除PRB技术和电化学修复技术已经商业化应用外,生物修复技术的研究目前多着重于实验室的模拟修复,在应用于实践方面还有待于进一步增强。注重筛选高效、降解特定重金属的微生物,实现规模化、产业化的实践应用。

    (3)值得关注的是原位生物修复技术,在寻找降解特定重金属的微生物过程中,结合现代基因手段修饰Gsulfurreducens等产纳米导线的微生物,从而提高重金属污染修复效率。

    现代修复技术应该是绿色意义的,完成地下水污染修复的同时,维护正常的地下生态系统结构和功能。同时,地下水污染修复影响因素较多,单一的修复技术都有各自的适用范围,因此,在实践过程中,联合物理、化学和生物修复的多种方法,高效、低能耗的实现修复目标。

    来源:《水处理技术》杂质

     

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