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    PPP的热与惑 ----关于PPP目的及概念的再认知
     

    当PPP热潮席卷社会各个角落的时候,让我们冷静下来,重新审视我国发展PPP的目的、PPP发展中存在的概念泛化问题及概念泛化所带来的认识误区。

    一、换个角度看PPP:促使地方政府的服务归位

    地方与中央的博弈

    在我国传统的中央集权体制下,地方政府官员的升迁取决于中央政府的考核,地方政府会按照中央政府的指挥棒决定自己的行为,但地方政府在执行中央政府政策的行为中会存在各种各样的异化。第一,中央政府的指标化考核类似应试教育,易使地方政府背离了提供公共服务(包括环保、人民福祉、社会公平稳定、城市可持续发展等方面)的原则,仅为了完成指标活动而获得升迁的机会。第二,在1994年实行分税制的改革以及在改革开放之后,其确定的地方以经济发展为纲的整个路线方针方向、聚焦经济发展原则的基础上,央地两级政府都将经济活动作为发展的重心,地方政府在工作层面异化为经营城市的偏执,在经营城市中就像企业追求利润一样去追求财税收入和基本建设投入的增加,这种政府经营缺乏市场配置和效率。

    两元结构形成

    从地方政府的上述行为异化中,我们可以看到地方人大、法律和信息公开等对地方政府约束薄弱,对地方政府的行为也缺乏有效监管。在约束不到位而考核机制来自于中央政府的评价的情况下,地方政府和中央政府总是在进行一场“猫鼠游戏”,地方政府在经济发展中会片面迎合政绩观,出现了违背市场规律、超常超规的运作情况。在历史轨迹上我们可以看到,从地方政府大力兴办各种中小企业、国有企业以控制收入,到1994年分税制改革以后转向经营土地和投融资平台的畸形放大等形式的走形,都来自于每一次中央的改革到地方逐步实施中的异化过度。可见,作为央地两级的二元关系是不稳定的系统。

    为了避免上述情况,人大监督制度及其他各项监督制度均在完善。目前财政部的一系列改革也都是为了约束地方政府的不合理行为,比如关闭投融资平台、新预算法中对政府收支的长期计划性以及进一步强调人大的决议都是为了约束地方政府的不合理行为。

    让市场进入是政治选择

    追溯到之前的情况,在我国目前中央高度集权的政治体制下,解决上述问题的关键是要突出市场的作用,运用市场将央地二元政府关系转为央地政府和企业的三元关系,外加公众的监督,此种三元关系会比二元关系更易于监管和调整。在三元关系中,企业与地方政府应该有可见、可约束、符合商业、会计等规则的合同。同时需要有公开透明、科学的财务系统,目前中央政府也在督促地方政府的财务报表改革,PPP财政支出的计划性和长期性。若参与三方关系的企业成长上市后,要求则更严格,财务、税收、会计、法律、合同等方面的信息公开应用会更好的规范地方政府的各种经济活动,也便于中央政府引导地方政府更多的健康的行为。

    地方政府:从城市经营到公共服务

    未来地方政府会从依托土地开发的政府转为持久稳定提供公共服务的政府。在过渡期及未来的发展过程中,结合十八届三中全会决议对资源配置市场化的考虑,混合所有制改制、地方国企转制、国发[2014]43号文和60号文中强调的将地方基础设施打包进入企业化运营、PPP重大举措等成为促使地方政府被装进笼子,在经济活动中在位而不缺位、不越位的重要改革方向。

    在整个逻辑构象里我们认为PPP的含义不光是解决地方政府的融资问题,也不仅仅是提高社会基础设施的建设和投资运营效率问题,更多的是通过三元关系的方式将地方政府的经济活动公开、透明、法治、符合市场规律。

    二、PPP概念的泛化带来部分逻辑的混乱

    十八届三中全会提出通过市场来配置资源是继邓小平改革开放后我国第二次重大的改革方向。在此次改革的大方向下,各部委又回到某种圈地的惯性。

    发改委是站在项目管理和投资管理的角度建立了PPP项目库,同时发改委正在着手研究《基础设施和公用事业公私合作法》的立法工作。财政部主要从财政资金改革角度促进PPP,并以PPP中心为代表的机构统一管理,多方面积极摸索PPP系统在中国的完善和建立。环保部从环境角度提出并推进第三方治理和环境绩效合同服务。而在PPP已推进许久的住建部所辖市政领域,特许经营则是更为熟悉的词汇;同时住建部也在联合发改委推进特许经营立法,进一步规范BOT、TOT在市政领域的PPP推进。

    各部委从自身的工作职责出发,强调某一个概念占据主导位置,在一定程度上造成了相关PPP概念的泛化和内涵的扩大与融合。环保部提出的与PPP相关的第三方治理词汇是典型的泛化案例。

    环境污染第三方治理是指通过引入市场机制,由排污企业采取付费方式,把治理污染设施的建设、运营维护交给专业化的第三方机构来完成,实现“产污”和“治污”分离。第三方治理的本源是在政府环保部门的监管下工业企业与环保企业通过合同如何对双方责任进行认定,政府通过加强环境监管和引导外包服务来促进第三方治理的形成。就国办发[2014]69号文而言,文件涵盖的范围很广,第三方治理涵盖了几乎环保产业的所有方面,包括市政基础设施中的环境公用设施;涵盖了工业园区,工业污染治理;最重要的是涵盖了环境修复市场,通过的是环境绩效合同服务(即合同环境服务)的方式。第三方治理被泛化后削弱了其背后的逻辑关系,也加速了众多概念的同质性会师。

    三、PPP合同性质的争议

    从国务院到发改委、财政部等各部委为推广PPP,出台《国务院关于加强地方政府性债务管理的意见》、《关于在公共服务领域推广政府和社会资本合作模式指导意见的通知》、《基础设施和公用事业特许经营管理办法》等数十部文件。在国内之前官方发布的PPP指导文件中,特许经营被泛化到所有市政领域的PPP;特许经营也被泛化到所有的PPP领域;政府采购服务也被扩展到所有的PPP领域。

    目前对行政诉讼的争议根源来自于上述词汇的泛化,从企业是否具有经营性入手,我们认为PPP在市政领域内分为特许经营和政府采购公共服务。

    市政环境领域特许经营

    特许经营是指政府将某项公共服务职能,通过一定行政或经济程序,授予企业在约定的时间和范围内享有和利用,企业承担相应的义务(文中的特许经营研究的是政府特许经营,而非商业特许经营)。

    特许经营的特征体现为三点:特许经营的核心是经营权的排他性授予;被特许企业从事的活动是经营活动,自负盈亏;用户直接向经营主体付费。

    授予特许经营权,属于《中华人民共和国行政许可法》(以下简称“行政许可法”)中第12条规定的“可以设定行政许可”的事项,即“有限自然资源开发利用、公共资源配置以及直接关系公共利益的特定行业的市场准入等,需要赋予特定权利的事项”。

    在环境市政领域,政府选择自来水的经营企业需要特许经营。政府许可的过程是行政行为,其给企业提供定价机制、经营范围、规划方向等,没有保底水量的承诺,企业的行为是经营行为,自负盈亏。特许经营没有规定政府向企业付费的经济行为,而是政府的公共服务权利和义务让渡给了企业,企业具有收费权,通过水价直接向用户收取费用。若水价需要调整,企业向政府提出申请,物价部门的负责人会针对市自来水公司提交的水价调整方案组织一次价格听证会。

    市政环境领域政府采购公共服务

    政府通过公开招标等公平竞争的方式选择污水处理企业帮助其运营污水处理厂,政府给予企业的服务费的资金来源可能是收取的污水处理费、也可能是土地费用、也可能是政府税收。在中国污水处理费属于行政事业性收费(个别城市除外),除非特殊规定企业直接收取,一般都由政府直接收取或政府委托公共供水企业代征。

    政府与污水处理企业签订服务协议,此行为是一种政府与企业约定保底水量的政府经济行为,而没有体现政府的行政权利,污水处理BOT是政府按照污水处理厂的保底水量或实际的处理能力事后购买服务的方式来付费,在这个过程当中,社会资本方依据合同要尽职尽责的完成政府交给他的目标(污染物的削减量),他必须去筹钱、去管理运营,这个合同约定并没有给社会资本方什么权利,企业仅仅按照约定目标提供劳务。

    哪些公共服务能够采用采购服务的形式来实现,取决于该项公共服务能否清晰划分服务边界,是否可量化考核目标,是否市场提供时效果更好、成本更低。在不同政治体制和行政体制之下,选择的结果或有很大的差异。

    其他组合形式

    但经营性收费不能支付企业的成本与合理和收益时,会出现补贴性特许经营,即政府财政会对特许经营进行特定补贴,但是不改变特许经营性质。目前行业中一般都将市政污水当作特许经营对待,源于污水处理费的专款专用以及部分城市水务集团对污水处理费的截留。但是,除非改变污水处理费的性质,否则,污水处理费的专款专用,也不影响公共服务采购的性质。

    解决PPP法律争议方式的关键是辨析合同性质,明确协议是行政合同还是普通民事合同。很明显,在市政环境领域特许经营中,若企业的合法权益受到损害,申请人可以依法申请行政复议或者提起行政诉讼,最高法的司法解释已将特许经营协议定性为行政协议。在市政环境领域政府采购公共服务中,协议为民事协议,若发生政府付费给企业不及时的经济纠纷,除非有污水处理费是经营性收费的规定(纠纷走行政诉讼或复议),否则合同纠纷可依法提起民事诉讼或按约定申请仲裁。

    如果将这些都泛指为PPP,难以理清其不同的法律关系。

    附件1:市政领域PPP项目分类

    PPP项目的分类,第一类是具有垄断权和经营性质的使用者付费项目,如高速公路、自来水项目、供热项目、燃气项目等;第二类是政府直接付费项目,如污水处理厂、垃圾处理厂BOT、河道修复等项目;第三类是政府补贴项目,如地铁4号线等项目。从企业是否从事经营活动来看,PPP应包含特许经营和政府采购公共服务等。市政环境领域PPP项目分类如图1所示。

    图片1_副本.png

    图1  市政环境领域PPP项目分类

     

    附件2:市政领域PPP模式对比

    表 1 PPP项下特许经营和政府采购公共服务对比

    QQ截图20150731165616_副本.png

     

    备注:特殊规定的污水处理:如《上海市排水管理条例》中规定:上海排水公司是上海城区污水的经营主体也是污水处理费的收费主体,其直接向老百姓收费,是经营性收费。
     

    来源:E2O环境平台

     

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